CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE 

Less disturbance. More life. More resilient soils.​

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Fertile soil is more than a growing medium: it is a living production system. By combining minimal mechanical soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and diverse crop rotations, conservation agriculture helps reduce erosion and use water, nutrients, fuel and time more efficiently.

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Why adopt conservation agriculture?

A well-designed conservation agriculture system can deliver several benefits in the same field:

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• reduces machinery passes, fuel consumption, equipment wear and working time;

• protects fertile topsoil from water and wind erosion;

• increases the proportion of rainfall entering the soil and reduces surface runoff and evaporation;

• maintains more stable soil structure, root channels and earthworm burrows;

• provides more food and better living conditions for soil organisms;

• reduces losses of sediment, nutrients and plant protection products;

• can improve crop resilience to drought and heavy rainfall;

• strengthens the land's long-term productive capacity and farm profitability.

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The greatest strength of conservation agriculture lies in combining these benefits: more water enters the soil, less soil is washed away, fewer machinery passes are needed and soil gradually functions better (González-Sánchez et al., 2016).

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Conservation agriculture in figures

• In Slovenia, various forms of non-plough tillage are estimated to cover around 30,000 hectares, while full conservation agriculture applying all three principles covers around 2,000 hectares. These are expert estimates, not official statistics.

• An indicative calculation therefore puts full conservation agriculture at approximately 1.1% of Slovenia's arable land.

• Globally, conservation agriculture was estimated to cover 205.4 million hectares in 2018/19, or 14.7% of the world's cropland.

• Conventional seedbed preparation can require around 30–40 litres of diesel per hectare, making fewer machinery passes an important source of savings.

• Slovenia's water erosion model estimates average soil loss or displacement on arable land at 6.35 tonnes per hectare per year.

• In a Western European meta-analysis, winter cover crops reduced soil loss by an average of 72%. Among the systems studied, no-till had the largest estimated reduction, at 82%. Effects varied considerably between trials.

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What is conservation agriculture?

Conservation agriculture is an integrated crop production system that aims to protect and improve soils over the long term while maintaining stable, economically viable production.

As defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, it is based on three interlinked principles:

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1. Minimal mechanical soil disturbance

   Soil is disturbed only as much as necessary. Where conditions allow, direct drilling or other non-inversion tillage methods are used.

2. Permanent organic soil cover. At least 30% of the soil surface remains protected by crop residues, mulch, cover crops or growing plants after field operations. The aim is to maintain cover for as long as possible, ideally throughout the year.

3. Diverse crop rotations

   At least three different crops are included in the cropping sequence and, where possible, in crop associations. Diversity in botanical families, root systems and growing seasons is important.

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These three principles work together. Conservation agriculture is therefore about more than whether a farm ploughs: it concerns how the whole system reduces soil disturbance, maintains soil cover and increases crop diversity.

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The transition can be gradual: reduced tillage is an important step towards less soil disturbance, but does not on its own constitute full conservation agriculture. The key is to progressively align all three principles with the conditions on each farm.

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This is why we speak of conservation agriculture: it involves changing the entire production system, not just the tillage method.

(FAO – Conservation Agriculture)

 

Conservation and regenerative agriculture

Conservation and regenerative agriculture overlap considerably, but are not synonymous. Conservation agriculture is based on three clearly defined principles: minimal mechanical soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover and diverse crop rotations.

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Regenerative agriculture is a broader, less uniformly defined approach focused on restoring soil and agroecosystem functions. It often also emphasises keeping living roots in the soil for as long as possible, increasing biodiversity, cycling nutrients and monitoring environmental and economic outcomes.

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Conservation agriculture can therefore provide a strong foundation for a regenerative transition, although the two approaches are not identical (Newton et al., 2020).

 

Fertile soil is a living ecosystem

Soil fertility depends on more than the amount of plant nutrients. It is determined by the soil's physical, chemical and biological properties, particularly:

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• a stable, porous structure;

• a suitable soil reaction, or pH;

• balanced nutrient availability;

• a favourable balance between water and air;

• sufficient organic matter;

• a diverse and active community of soil organisms;

• unrestricted root growth;

• the soil's ability to absorb water and resist erosion.

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Bacteria, fungi, earthworms and other soil organisms break down plant residues, help form stable aggregates, create pores and enable nutrient cycling. Their habitat is maintained through living roots, adequate biomass inputs, limiting unnecessary mechanical disturbance and preventing soil compaction.

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How does conservation agriculture improve soil function?

​Cover protects the surface

Crop residues and cover crops intercept raindrops and reduce their impact. This limits aggregate breakdown, surface crusting and the loss of fine soil particles.

Covered soils are less exposed to direct sunlight, wind and large temperature fluctuations. Crop residues also reduce water evaporation from the soil.

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Drought resilience involves more than water storage

Drought resilience depends on more than the soil's water-holding capacity. Equally important is how much rainfall or irrigation water can enter the soil before running off or evaporating.

 

Stable aggregates, root channels and earthworm burrows help water infiltrate. Plant cover slows surface flow, giving water more time to enter the soil. Irrigation is also more effective where soils can absorb water quickly and distribute it throughout the root zone.

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The soil's ability to absorb water and allow unrestricted root growth is therefore particularly important for drought resilience. Overall soil condition is assessed using several indicators, presented in the following section.

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The goal is functional soil, not simply loose soil

Freshly ploughed soil feels loose, but this does not necessarily mean its structure is stable over time. After heavy rain, aggregates may break down quickly and a surface crust can form.

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In conservation agriculture, stable aggregates, connected pores and continuous channels for water, air and roots are more important. Topsoil bulk density may be somewhat higher, particularly during the transition, but this alone does not indicate harmful compaction.

Soil condition should be assessed using several indicators: infiltration, root development, biopore abundance, penetration resistance, aeration and aggregate stability.

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Organic matter matters, but it is not the only measure

Roots, crop residues, cover crops and organic fertilisers provide carbon and energy for soil organisms. With sufficient biomass inputs and limited organic matter losses, a conservation agriculture system can help maintain or gradually increase organic matter, particularly in the topsoil.

However, humus content alone does not show whether soil is functioning well. Soil health is also assessed through:

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• water infiltration rate;

• aggregate stability;

• compaction and rooting depth;

• biological activity;

• the presence of earthworms and other organisms;

• pH and nutrient availability;

• soil cover;

• the soil's response to drought and heavy rainfall.

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Sampling depth also matters. An increase in organic carbon in the upper few centimetres does not necessarily imply the same increase throughout the soil profile. Changes must therefore be monitored using comparable sampling depths, methods and timing.

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Conservation agriculture in Slovenia and worldwide

Slovenia has no official statistical dataset that specifically tracks land where all three conservation agriculture principles are applied together.

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According to a 2024 expert estimate by Professor Rok Mihelič, various forms of conservation tillage or non-plough tillage cover around 30,000 hectares. A full system combining minimal disturbance, at least 30% soil cover and diverse rotations is estimated to cover around 2,000 hectares. These are expert estimates, not figures from an official statistical register (Mihelič in Agrobiznis, 2024).

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According to SiStat, Slovenia recorded 173,929 hectares of arable land in 2024. Comparing Mihelič's estimates with this area for context suggests that various forms of non-plough tillage cover around 17% of arable land, and full conservation agriculture around 1.1%. These shares are indicative only, as the figures come from different records and definitions (SiStat, table 1502401S).

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For 2018/19, Kassam, Friedrich and Derpsch estimated the following global figures:

• 205.4 million hectares under conservation agriculture;

• 14.7% of the world's cropland;

• adoption in 102 countries;

• an increase of more than 10 million hectares per year since 2008/09.

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These figures come from a research dataset, not an official, regularly updated FAOSTAT time series (Kassam, Friedrich and Derpsch, 2022).

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Fewer passes mean less fuel and more time

​In Slovenia's agricultural energy consumption indicator for 2024, gas oil used to power agricultural machinery accounted for 59% of the energy considered, or 2,442.7 TJ. The energy required to manufacture the nitrogen fertilisers used accounted for 34.7%, and electricity for 3.7%.

The gas oil figure is not a direct measurement of actual consumption. The Slovenian Environment Agency (ARSO) and the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia (KIS) estimate it assuming consumption of 140 litres per hectare of utilised agricultural area. The indicator therefore primarily highlights the importance of fuel in agriculture's energy mix (ARSO and KIS, 2025).

Field data from the LIFE+ Agricarbon project, summarised in a report by the European Conservation Agriculture Federation, show average fuel consumption per operation:

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Conventional seedbed preparation involving several successive passes can consume at least 30 litres of fuel per hectare for tillage, and around 40 litres in more intensive systems. Direct drilling eliminates many of these passes, although sowing, crop protection and other necessary operations still consume fuel.

Actual savings depend on soil type, crop, machinery, the number of passes eliminated and weed management. In herbicide-free systems, additional mechanical measures may reduce some of these savings. (González-Sánchez, Basch et al., 2017)

Illustrating potential savings

Data on individual field operations show that conventional pre-sowing tillage can consume around 30–40 litres of fuel per hectare. However, this does not equal the net saving, as direct drilling and any additional weed management measures also consume fuel. For illustration, we therefore use a more cautious scenario of a reduction of 20–30 litres per hectare per year.​

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This calculation is an illustrative scenario, not a measured Slovenian result. Actual savings depend on the initial tillage system, soil type, crop, machinery, number of passes and weed management. In herbicide-free systems, additional mechanical measures may reduce some of these savings.

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In the four-year Spanish LIFE+ Agricarbon trial, energy-related emissions under direct drilling were lower than under conventional tillage by an average of:

• 12% for wheat;

• 26.3% for sunflower;

• 18.4% for legumes.

This represented approximately 176, 73 and 86 kilograms less CO₂ emissions per hectare per growing season, respectively. Results from Mediterranean conditions cannot be applied directly to every Slovenian farm, but they show that reducing intensive machinery passes can deliver measurable energy and emissions savings.

These values are not a direct conversion of litres of diesel saved. The project estimated emissions associated with the energy consumed by agricultural operations using energy conversion coefficients. These results therefore cannot be compared directly with the illustrative scenario above, which is based on litres of fuel and a factor of 3.03 kg CO₂e/l.
 

​​​​​​​​​​​Erosion: losing productive capital

Erosion removes the most fertile topsoil along with organic matter and nutrients. Within a field, it reduces productive potential and water-holding capacity. Beyond the field, sediment clogs ditches, drainage systems and reservoirs, pollutes water and increases cleaning and repair costs.

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A RUSLE model estimate for 2020 indicates average water erosion across all land-use types in Slovenia of 3.18 tonnes of soil per hectare per year. On arable land, the estimated average loss was higher, at 6.35 tonnes per hectare per year.

 

These are model estimates of soil displacement, not direct measurements of the amount of soil actually leaving each parcel.

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Values for vineyards and olive groves are probably overestimated because the model could not fully account for terraces and grass-covered inter-rows. The higher estimate for permanent grassland is also related to its frequent location on steeper slopes (Vrščaj, Bergant, Kastelic and Gričnik, 2023 – Soil water erosion).

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Multiplying the estimate of 6.35 t/ha by the 179,033 hectares of arable land used in ARSO's model gives approximately 1.14 million tonnes of gross soil displacement per year. This does not mean that all of this soil leaves fields or ends up on roads and in watercourses. Some is deposited within the same parcel or nearby. The calculation nevertheless illustrates the scale of a process that often becomes noticeable only when rills, sediment deposits or exposed roots appear.

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How much can soil cover and reduced tillage help?

In a Western European meta-analysis, winter cover crops reduced soil loss by an average of 72%. Among the systems studied, no-till had the largest estimated reduction, at

82%. Because results varied considerably between trials, and potential publication bias was identified in reduced-tillage studies, these figures should not be interpreted as a guaranteed effect in every field.

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Erosion has costs both on and off the farm

On the farm, erosion causes:

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• loss of fertile topsoil;

• loss of organic matter and nutrients;

• reduced water retention;

• lower long-term productive potential;

• greater need for fertilisation and remediation;

• uneven crop emergence and more difficult cultivation of damaged areas.

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Off the farm, deposited soil affects roads, ditches, drainage systems, watercourses and reservoirs. Municipalities, infrastructure operators and the wider community bear the costs of cleaning, sediment removal, repairs and flood recovery.

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The European Commission's Joint Research Centre estimated that around 12 million hectares of agricultural land in the EU were affected by severe erosion. Crop productivity on these areas was estimated to decline by around 0.43% per year, with the direct annual value of lost productivity estimated at approximately €1.25 billion.

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Arithmetically, this equates to around €104 per hectare of severely eroded land per year. This figure cannot be applied directly to an individual Slovenian field; it is an indicative average derived from the European estimate.

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A macroeconomic model in the same study also estimated an annual impact of around €300 million on the agricultural sector and a GDP loss of approximately €155 million. These amounts must not be added to the €1.25 billion, as they represent different ways of valuing the same problem (Panagos et al., 2018).

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Slovenia has no unified public record of municipalities' annual spending on removing soil from roads, cleaning ditches, removing sediment and repairing damaged infrastructure. It would therefore be inappropriate to present these costs as an unverified national figure. However, the European Soil Data Centre explicitly identifies sedimentation, eutrophication, flooding and damage to roads, railways and other public infrastructure as societal consequences of erosion (ESDAC – European Commission).

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Keeping soil in the field therefore benefits not only the farmer, but also municipalities, water managers and local communities.

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What can we expect from crop yields?

Conservation agriculture aims to maintain stable, economically viable production. Simply abandoning ploughing, however, does not guarantee higher yields.

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A European meta-analysis covering 128 studies, 624 observations and 21 countries found that yields under direct drilling were on average 5.1% lower than under conventional tillage. Strip and ridge tillage produced average yields around 5% higher. Results depended strongly on the crop, soil type, tillage depth, residue retention, crop rotation, climate and trial duration (Achankeng and Cornelis, 2023).

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This result primarily assesses different tillage methods and does not necessarily evaluate full conservation agriculture applying all three principles. It nevertheless reinforces an important message: ploughing cannot simply be abandoned without adapting the rest of the cropping system.

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Yield must be assessed alongside costs. A somewhat different yield achieved with substantially less fuel, labour and machinery use can deliver a better economic result than a higher yield with high tillage costs. It therefore makes sense to monitor gross margins and costs per hectare over several years, not just one season's yield.

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Challenges that must be acknowledged

Conservation agriculture is not simply a matter of replacing the plough with another machine. The transition requires changes to rotations, sowing, residue management, fertilisation, crop protection and work organisation.

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The most common challenges include:

• the need for a suitable seed drill or access to machinery services;

• even distribution of crop residues;

• changes in weed species and population dynamics;

• slower warming of covered soils in spring;

• more demanding sowing in cold or excessively wet soils;

• possible yield fluctuations during the transition;

• more careful planning of rotations and cover crops;

• remediation of existing compacted layers;

• several years of learning and adjusting machinery settings;

• locally higher slug pressure, especially in wet conditions and where crop residues provide extensive soil cover.

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As mechanical tillage is no longer the main weed control method, weed management becomes a major challenge. Herbicides are not a principle of conservation agriculture, but in practice they are often one of the tools used, particularly during the transition. Reliance on them can be reduced through diverse rotations, competitive crops, cover crops, preventing weed seed production and combining mechanical, biological and chemical measures.

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In Slovenia, through the EIP OK-EKO project, we are developing and testing conservation agriculture systems without herbicides or intensive tillage.
 

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How to get started?

The safest transition is gradual, monitored and tailored to the individual farm.

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1. Assess the initial soil condition.

   Establish a soil baseline before changing the system. From the list in the section “Organic matter matters, but it is not the only measure”, choose three to five indicators most relevant to your field and record their initial values.

2. Start with a suitable field.

   Choose an area without severe compaction, waterlogging or perennial weed problems.

3. Plan the rotation first.

   Before stopping ploughing, plan the sequence of main crops and cover crops, together with weed management, for several years.

4. Manage residues and maintain cover.

   Residues must be evenly distributed. Bare soil between two main crops should become the exception.

5. Check your sowing equipment.

   Correct drill settings, row-unit pressure, sowing depth and seed-to-soil contact are crucial for successful emergence.

6. Avoid driving on excessively wet soils.

   Reduced tillage cannot undo damage caused by poorly timed field traffic, excessive axle loads or incorrect tyre pressure.

7. Measure the results.

   Monitor your chosen soil indicators every year at comparable times using the same methods. Also record yield, gross margin, fuel consumption, working hours and weed conditions.

8. Assess performance over several years.

   Changes in soil structure and biological functioning develop gradually. A single season, especially one with unusual weather, is not enough to assess the system reliably.

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The role of SACA

The Slovenian Association for Conservation Agriculture (SACA) is Slovenia's central professional association connecting farmers, researchers and advisers working in conservation agriculture.

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We bring together farmers, researchers, advisers, machinery suppliers and other specialists. We share knowledge through field demonstrations, the Conservation Agriculture Academy, professional events, exchanges of experience and participation in Slovenian and European projects.

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Key ongoing projects include:

• EIP OK-EKO – a project involving twelve partners from 2025 to 2028, developing weed control without herbicides or intensive tillage in organic production (EIP OK-EKO project);

• TRAILS4SOIL – a European project testing regenerative and conservation practices on working farms in five living labs, alongside methods for measuring, reporting and verifying their effects on soil health (TRAILS4SOIL);

• C-FARMING – a European project developing knowledge, skills and business competences in carbon farming and sustainable soil management (C-FARMING).

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The European framework for soil health

In 2025, the European Union adopted Directive (EU) 2025/2360 on soil monitoring and resilience, also known as the Soil Monitoring Law.

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The directive establishes a common framework for monitoring and assessing soil health. Member States must adopt the necessary national legislation by 17 December 2028. Its specific impact on Slovenian farmers will depend on how it is transposed, the indicators selected, the national monitoring system and future agricultural policy measures (Directive (EU) 2025/2360).

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Conservation agriculture can help farms prepare for these developments by measurably improving soil cover, structure, infiltration, organic matter and resilience.

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Conservation agriculture means more precise management

Conservation agriculture is not a single recipe and does not produce identical results in every field. It is a system of decisions requiring knowledge of the soil, rotation planning, adapted machinery and regular monitoring.

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The goal goes beyond giving up the plough. It is to ensure that:

• more rainfall enters the soil;

• less fertile soil leaves the field;

• soil remains covered and contains living roots for as long as possible;

• unnecessary machinery passes are reduced;

• energy and nutrients are used more efficiently;

• production remains stable and economically viable;

• soil retains its productive capacity for future generations.

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The best starting point is a carefully chosen field, clear objectives, application of all three principles and several years of monitoring, rather than an abrupt change across the entire farm.

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If you are considering the transition, join SACA's activities, attend field demonstrations and connect with farmers already using the system. In conservation agriculture, local practical experience is as important as research findings.

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Data and legal information current as of September 2026.

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References and further reading

1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations – FAO. Conservation Agriculture: Definition and Three Principles. Rome: FAO. Accessed 20 September 2026.

2. Šubic, Petra. 2024. Healthy soils through conservation agriculture. Agrobiznis/Finance, 12 September 2024. The article includes Rok Mihelič's expert estimates of the extent of conservation tillage and full conservation agriculture in Slovenia.

3. Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. 2026. Land category and arable crop groups (ha), Slovenia, annually. SiStat database, table 1502401S, latest release 27 March 2026.

4. Kassam, Amir, Theodor Friedrich and Rolf Derpsch. 2022. Successful Experiences and Lessons from Conservation Agriculture Worldwide. Agronomy 12(4): 769. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy12040769.

5. Poje, Tomaž, and Viktor Jejčič. 2025. Energy consumption in agriculture – indicator KM09. Agricultural Institute of Slovenia and Slovenian Environment Agency. Last updated 11 November 2025.

6. González-Sánchez, Emilio J., M. Moreno-García, A. Kassam, A. Holgado-Cabrera, P. Triviño-Tarradas, R. Carbonell-Bojollo, M. Pisante, O. Veroz-González and G. Basch. 2017. Conservation Agriculture: Making Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Real in Europe. Brussels: European Conservation Agriculture Federation, 154 pp. ISBN 978-84-697-4303-4.

7. González-Sánchez, Emilio J., Amir Kassam, Gottlieb Basch, Bernhard Streit, Antonio Holgado-Cabrera and Paula Triviño-Tarradas. 2016. Conservation Agriculture and Its Contribution to the Achievement of Agri-environmental and Economic Challenges in Europe. AIMS Agriculture and Food 1(4): 387–408. DOI: 10.3934/agrfood.2016.4.387.

8. Vrščaj, Borut, Janez Bergant, Peter Kastelic and Monika Gričnik. 2023. Soil water erosion – indicator KM35. Agricultural Institute of Slovenia and Slovenian Environment Agency. The indicator is based on Slovenia's RUSLE erosion map for 2020; last updated 15 November 2023.

9. Clement, Timothée, Charles L. Bielders and Aurore Degré. 2024. How Much Do Conservation Cropping Practices Mitigate Runoff and Soil Erosion under Western European Conditions: A Focus on Conservation Tillage, Tied Ridging and Winter Cover Crops. Soil Use and Management 40(2): e13047. DOI: 10.1111/sum.13047.

10. Panagos, Panagiotis, G. Standardi, Pasquale Borrelli, Emanuele Lugato, Luca Montanarella and Francesco Bosello. 2018. Cost of Agricultural Productivity Loss Due to Soil Erosion in the European Union: From Direct Cost Evaluation Approaches to the Use of Macroeconomic Models. Land Degradation & Development 29(3): 471–484. DOI: 10.1002/ldr.2879.

11. European Soil Data Centre – ESDAC. Macroeconomic Models and Soil Erosion. Joint Research Centre, European Commission. Accessed 20 September 2026.

12. Achankeng, Etiendem, and Wim M. Cornelis. 2023. Conservation Tillage Effects on European Crop Yields: A Meta-analysis. Field Crops Research 298: 108967. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2023.108967.

13. Slovenian Association for Conservation Agriculture. 2025. EIP OK-EKO: A conservation agriculture system for organic production without herbicides. IRP31 project, running from 24 April 2025 to 24 April 2028.

14. TRAILS4SOIL. Rebuilding Soil Health with Regenerative and Conservation Agriculture. EU Mission Soil research project. Accessed 20 September 2026.

15. C-FARMING. Carbon Farming Skills and Competences. European project developing carbon farming competences. Accessed 20 September 2026.

16. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. 2025. Directive (EU) 2025/2360 of 12 November 2025 on soil monitoring and resilience. Official Journal of the European Union L, 2025/2360, 26 November 2025.

17. Newton, Peter, Nicole Civita, Lee Frankel-Goldwater, Kathryn Bartel and Colleen Johns. 2020. What Is Regenerative Agriculture? A Review of Scholar and Practitioner Definitions Based on Processes and Outcomes. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 4: 577723. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.577723